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Last updated July 26, 2023
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This style guide is designed for you, our valued collaborators. You are the contributors who create content for the New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources’ (NMBGMR) technical and general audience publications. This editorial style guide is meant to support you in developing your important and valuable written work and to ensure consistency and excellence across all Bureau of Geology communications.
This style guide is a living document that will be updated continually with your input. The publications team welcomes your insight into the best style practices in your particular field, and we want to know of any content and style issues not currently addressed by this guide. Please send questions and suggestions to nmbg.editor@nmt.edu and help us keep our guidelines current.
The style presented here combines several sources:
The number one rule of style is simply be consistent.
First and foremost, be internally consistent within a single document. Then, be consistent among documents.
Standalone entries with no definition/style guidance represent preferred Bureau of Geology capitalization or spelling.
AA – see academic degrees
abbreviations and acronyms
The names of chemical elements and molecules are written out rather than abbreviated, with the following exceptions:
Elements and molecules are abbreviated in figures.
Don’t abbreviate lithologic and time-stratigraphic terms in the text. Abbreviations are acceptable in figures and tables to save space.
Capitalize lithologic abbreviations when they follow a formal rock unit name (for example, Navajo Ss.). When used informally to refer to a general rock type, the lithologic abbreviation is lowercase (sandstone, ss.). Always capitalize time-stratigraphic abbreviations. Table 1 summarizes abbreviations used for lithologic and time-stratigraphic terms.
Time as a unit of measure: Use a numeral to express lengths of time (for example, 2 years, 4 months, 8 weeks, 13 days).
Calendar dates: Common Era (CE) and Before the Common Era (BCE) are the preferred notations for the Gregorian calendar; they are equivalent to Anno Domini (A.D.) and Before Christ (B.C.) but are religiously neutral. The abbreviations don’t take periods and are placed after the year. No abbreviations are needed if the time period is defined in the text (for example, a discussion of 20th century land-use policy would not need CE after dates). There is no year 0; the year 1 CE comes after the year 1 BCE. For ranges of years, start with the oldest year:
Use numerals for all dates (note comma usage in the examples below):
January, February, August, September, October, November, and December may be abbreviated to save space in figures and captions:
Dates may be abbreviated with only numerals in tables to save space; use the format mm/dd/yyyy.
When naming computer files, the format yyyymmdd used at the beginning of the file name is preferred so the files will sort chronologically (for example, 20230711_file.docx).
Spell out months when used alone or with only a year:
Don’t use the ordinal form of the number (adding st, th, rd, etc.) with dates:
Geologic time: ka for kilo-annum (thousand years), Ma for mega-annum (million years), and Ga for giga-annum (billion years) are reserved for reporting geologic ages. Time measured from the present is implicit in ka, Ma, and Ga, and neither “before present” nor “ago” is added to these abbreviations.
Durations and intervals of time (for example, for geologic processes) may be abbreviated as kyr (thousands of years), Myr (millions of years), and Gyr (billions of years).
Use 14C yr BP for uncalibrated radiocarbon ages (radiocarbon years before present, with “present” fixed as 1950 CE). Use cal yr BP (calendar years before present) for calendar-calibrated radiocarbon ages.
When listing ranges of geologic ages, list the oldest date first (for example, radiometric ages range between 24 and 22 Ma). Otherwise, time ranges are given with the youngest date first (as with ranges of other values; for example, 10–20 years ago, 22–25 Myr).
Examples
academic degrees – no periods in abbreviations; not capitalized when used as general terms
Associate of Arts (AA), Associate of Science (AS), associate’s degree (for example, Pat Jones was awarded an Associate of Science degree in biology; Pat Jones has an associate’s degree)
Bachelor of Arts (BA), Bachelor of Science (BS), bachelor’s degree
Master of Arts (MA), Master of Science (MS), master’s degree
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), doctoral degree or doctorate
Name, degree (for example, Pat Jones, PhD)
acequia – refers both to the canal and other irrigation infrastructure and the political organization/community that manages and uses the community-operated irrigation system
acequia parciante
acid mine drainage – used to refer to the outflow of acidic water from mining operations
acid rock drainage – used to refer to the outflow of acidic water that can occur naturally as part of weathering processes
acknowledgments – not acknowledgements
A.D. – see time
adjective – a word or phrase that describes a noun (for example, large, grainy, oblong)
adverb – a word or phrase that modifies an adjective, verb, or other adverb or a group of words, usually describing a relation of place, time, circumstance, manner, cause, degree, etc. (for example, loudly, here, often)
affect/effect – affect as a verb means to influence (for example, may affect flow patterns), effect as a verb means to cause (for example, to effect change) and as a noun means a result (for example, the effect was quite positive)
aftereffect – not after-effect or after effect
Albuquerque Basin – see capitalization/geography
Albuquerque Bernalillo County Water Utility Authority – referred to as the Water Authority (not ABCWUA, as of March 2023)
American Indian
Acceptable for general use (for example, American Indian cultures); when referring to a specific tribe, nation, or pueblo, use that group’s preferred name (for example, Jicarilla Apache Nation, Pueblo of Acoma). If possible, verify the usage with the tribe, nation, or pueblo.
among/between – between is used with two items, among is used for more than two
Ancestral Rocky Mountains
anti – see prefixes and suffixes
approximately
The ≈ symbol means approximately with evidence, the ~ symbol means approximately without the context of evidence. Over the years, ~ has become the de facto symbol, but neither should be used for scientific publications; write out “approximately” instead.
apostrophe – see punctuation
40Ar/39Ar – argon-argon dating, a method of radiometric dating
ArcGIS – a family of client, server, and online GIS software developed and maintained by Esri
archaeology (n), archaeological (adj) – for example, the science of archaeology, an archaeological dig
areal extent – used in technical publications; for general audiences, use size instead
A research division of New Mexico Tech – not A Research Division of
aridity indexes – not indices
artifact (n), artifactual (adj) – not artefact; for example, an artifact was discovered, the dig produced a lot of artifactual material
AS – see academic degrees
ash fall – preferred over Plinian deposits; don’t use air fall or airfall
azimuth – for compass directions using azimuth angles (0–360°), no directional symbol (N, NE, NNW, etc.) is needed (for example, 210°); note that azimuth measurements are preferred for reporting strike in reports, and dip direction is required in GIS
BA – see academic degrees
back end (n), back-end (adj) – for example, the application’s back end, a back-end developer
backcountry – spelled as one word, unless used in a formal title and spelled as two words (for example, Black Hills Back Country Byway)
backfill
back slope
backup (n, adj), back up (v) – for example, make a backup of the files, a backup copy, they will back up the files
bankfull capacity
base flow
basin – see capitalization/geography
B.C. – see time
beachrock
bedrock
between/among – between is used with two items, among is used for more than two
bi/bio – see prefixes and suffixes
billion – equals 1,000 million (109)
blueline/digital dylux – types of printers’ proofs
bootheel – for example, the bootheel of New Mexico
borehole
bosque – riparian ecosystem surrounding a river (for example, the Rio Grande); not Bosque, except as part of a formal name (for example, Bosque del Apache)
BP – see time
brackets – see punctuation
BS – see academic degrees
BTU – see units of measurement
buildup (n), build up (v) – for example, a buildup of sediments, the sediments build up over time
buy-in (n), buy in (v) – for example, we had buy-in from the stakeholders, you must buy in to join the poker game
bylaw
by-product
ca. – abbreviation for circa, Latin for “about” or “approximately”
caldera – see capitalization/geography
campsite
capitalization
Rules governing capitalization are numerous and subject to many exceptions. The goal is to avoid random acts of capitalization! Be consistent throughout a publication.
Capitalize the name of a biological phylum, class, order, family, or genus, but not species, subspecies, or variety (for example, Foraminifera, Arecaceae, Tyrannosaurus rex, Homo sapiens, Prunus virginiana var. demissa).
Capitalize the words figure, table, appendix, and chapter when they’re given in the text to refer readers to a subsequent item (for example, the features in Figure 1 illustrate, refer to Chapter 2).
When calling out to another chapter in the same publication, use the same numbering convention as the chapter itself, that is, if the chapters are numbered in Roman numerals, use Roman numerals in the callouts.
If another author’s figure, table, appendix, or chapter is being called out, use lowercase (for example, At its reference section in the Rio Salado Valley (Hook et al., 1983, table 3), the formation is divided into three members.).
See figure callouts.
The names of elements and molecules are not capitalized in text. When using chemical symbols (see abbreviations and acronyms), use the capitalization style on the periodic table.
Use lowercase for compass directions when written out (for example, north, south, northwest, north-northwest) and for descriptive terms that denote direction or position (for example, southeastern New Mexico). Abbreviations for compass directions should be capitalized (for example, N, S, E, W, NE, SW, NNE).
Capitalize directions only when they designate regions:
Proper geographic names are capitalized (for example, Monument Valley, Wasatch Range, Great Salt Lake). Names that are not recognized as formal may be capitalized in some cases, for example, if they are the subject of a publication. This guide contains individual entries for some geographic names whose capitalizations differs from these rules due to common usage. For terms not listed here, authors should refer to the U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System (GNIS) to determine if a geographic name is formal and should be capitalized.
More specifics:
See geographic names.
Capitalize the names of eons, eras, periods, epochs, ages, eonothems, erathems, systems, series, and stages.
The geochronologic terms early, middle, and late and the chronostratigraphic terms lower, middle, and upper are capitalized only as part of a formal geologic time or rock series name (for example, Early Jurassic, Upper Devonian). They are lowercase for informal designations (for example, early Holocene, middle Eocene). For geochronologic use, authors are encouraged to follow the Geological Society of America’s Geologic Time Scale. For chronostratigraphic use, authors are encouraged to follow the International Commission on Stratigraphy’s International Chronostratigraphic Chart.
Geochronologic (time)
Chronostratigraphic (position)
The names of formal geologic units are proper nouns and are capitalized (for example, Chinle Formation, Navajo Draw Member of Arroyo Ojito Formation of Santa Fe Group). Authors should consult the U.S. Geological Society National Geologic Map Database (aka Geolex) to determine if a unit is formally recognized.
In the names of informal geologic units, don’t capitalize unit terms for lithology or formation (for example, Huckleberry Ridge ash bed, Left Creek quartzite, formation of Aurora).
For more, see geologic names/geologic units.
Use title case capitalization for headings, that is, capitalize all words except for minor words (articles [for example, a, an, the, etc.], prepositions [for example, on, for, after, etc.], and short conjunctions [for example, and, but, or, etc.]) that are not the first or last word of the title.
The full names of legislative, administrative, and judicial bodies, departments, bureaus, and offices are capitalized (for example, U.S. Department of Energy). Abbreviated names are not (for example, the energy department [in relation to the U.S. Department of Energy]).
Mineral names are not capitalized unless they begin a sentence; see minerals.
Capitalize professional titles only when they come before a person’s name (for example, Pat Jones is the state geologist, State Geologist Pat Jones is president of the Association of American State Geologists).
Always capitalize proper nouns, including hyphenated words in titles and headings (for example, Pat Jones, Open-File Report 88-546).
Don’t capitalize conjunctions, short prepositions (for example, of, for, from), or articles (for example, the, a, an) in long proper names (for example, New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources).
In the report text, capitalize all important words in the titles of books, journal articles, and reports (for example, Geologic History of Utah by Lehi F. Hintze; see title case); for capitalization of reference entries, see references.
Singular nouns used to replace proper nouns are not capitalized (for example, Grand Staircase–Escalante National Monument, but the monument; Zion National Park, but the park).
Don’t capitalize spring, summer, fall, autumn, or winter unless part of a formal name (for example, sampling was carried out in spring and winter, the program was held in the fall, the New Mexico Geological Society Fall Field Conference was in October).
Use title case capitalization for titles in the main text of a publication, that is, capitalize all words except for minor words (articles [for example, a, an, the, etc.], prepositions [for example, on, for, after, etc.], and short conjunctions [for example, and, but, or, etc.]) that are not the first or last word of the title.
captions
For all visuals (figures, maps, charts, and photos), captions have an end period and are not italicized. If a credit is included, it immediately follows the main caption text, and the credit is written in italics with no end period (for example, View of the Albuquerque volcanoes from the South Valley. Photo by Pat Jones). If the contributor is not a Bureau of Geology employee, include their organizational affiliation (for example, Photo by Pat Jones, USGS).
A photo credit may also read Photo courtesy of Name and follow the same format; this is used when the identity of the original photographer is not known and the photo has been provided to the Bureau of Geology by a contributing author or editor.
Permissions statements in captions are italicized and have a period (for example, The clinker formation sequence. Reproduced with permission from Pendant Publishing.).
carbon-14 – also symbol 14C
cattle guard
cauldron
Celsius – not centigrade; see units of measurement and temperature
centerline
cfs – see units of measurement
chemistry – see abbreviations and acronyms and capitalization
Chihuahuan Desert – see capitalization
circa – abbreviated as ca.; Latin for “approximately”; do not use ca. in the main text of a publication; instead, write out “around” or “approximately”
citations
Citations are parenthetical source attributions in the body of text. Each citation must have a corresponding entry in the reference list at the end of the publication. In-text citations within a separate parenthetical statement should be enclosed in brackets (see brackets). For guidance on formatting reference entries, see references.
cleanup (n), clean up (v) – for example, the spill cleanup is finished, we must clean up the spill
cliff former (n), cliff-forming (adj) – for example, the cliff former is more resistant to erosion, a cliff-forming outcrop
cliffrose
co – see prefixes and suffixes
coal bed
coalbed methane
coalfield
coal-fired power plant
coexist
collective nouns – in American English, these (for example, class, company, family, group, staff, etc.) take a singular verb (for example, the class is working, the staff was seated)
colon – see punctuation
Colorado Mineral Belt
comma – see punctuation
compared to/with – to indicates similarity (for example, we compared the seismicity of the central United States to the seismicity of Gansu Province in China); with indicates juxtaposition (for example, the formation contains few fossils compared with the type section)
compass directions – unhyphenated unless two directions are combined (for example, northeast, southwest, east-northeast); see capitalization and punctuation
compliment/complement – compliment is polite praise or congratulations (for example, please send my compliments to the chef); complement is something that completes something else (for example, their tie is a nice complement to their suit)
compose, comprise, constitute – compose means to put together (for example, the United States is composed of 50 states); comprise means to contain (for example, the United States comprises 50 states); a whole comprises its parts, not the other way around (incorrect: 50 states comprise the United States); constitute means to form or make up (for example, 50 states constitute the United States); comprised of is never correct, use comprises or composed of instead
conformable – an unbroken sequence of strata or stratification in which the layers are formed on top of each other with regular, uninterrupted deposition under the same general conditions; also the surface between younger and older strata along which there is no evidence of erosion or a break in deposition; see unconformable
Congress – capitalize when referring to the United States Congress; don’t capitalize “congressional”; don’t capitalize “congress” when used with its other meanings (that is, a formal meeting, a society/organization, or the act of coming together)
continual/continuous – continual indicates steady repetition over time (for example, we continually argue about stratigraphic boundaries); continuous means uninterrupted (for example, the wind blew continuously)
copyrighted material
If you use photographs, illustrations, or long quotations from someone else, you must cite the source and, in most cases (see government agencies exception below), obtain permission to use the material. Don’t assume that because you copied a figure from the internet that you can use it without permission. Modifying a figure doesn’t negate the copyright; it’s still the intellectual property of the original source. The copyright holder is often not the author but instead the author’s employer or publisher.
The major exception is works published by U.S. government agencies; these are automatically in the public domain. You don’t need to get permission to use anything published by government agencies or departments (for example, U.S. Geological Survey [USGS], U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]); however, you must still include an appropriate citation.
Many publishers have statements on their websites automatically granting permission to use their materials. Others may ask you to fill out a form, but most will grant permission for free. Sometimes the publisher asks for specific language to be used in the credit. Occasionally, permission carries a fee; in these cases, you might reconsider using the figure. Keep a record of any permissions you secure and forward them to the publications group in case there is a question of usage in the future.
core-stone
credits – for any visuals that require a credit (including figures, maps, charts, and photos), use italics and no end period (for example, Photo by Pat Jones); see captions
Cretaceous – the K–T boundary is now known as the K–Pg boundary; see Tertiary
critical mineral deposits – not critical-mineral deposits
cross
Many compound words are formed with cross. For geologic terms, refer to the Glossary of Geology; for general terms, refer to Merriam-Webster Dictionary. If a word is unlisted and is a noun, don’t hyphenate; hyphenate only adjective, adverb, and verb forms.
cross-bedding (n), cross-bed (n), cross-bedded (adj) – for example, the sandstone exhibits extensive cross-bedding, cross-beds can indicate prior conditions, a cross-bedded sandstone
crosscut (n), crosscutting (adj) – for example, the crosscut intersects a vein, a crosscutting passageway
cross-lamination
cross section (n), cross-sectional (adj) – for example, Figure 1 shows a cross section of the structure, a cross-sectional diagram
cross-stratification
cuesta – not questa, except for the village of Questa, NM
cutbank
damage/damages – damage means destruction (for example, the earthquake caused great damage); damages are monies awarded as compensation (for example, they received $1 million in damages)
dash – see punctuation
data – takes a plural verb in scientific writing (for example, the data show, data were collected)
database
dataset
datum – singular of data
DCMI – domestic, commercial, municipal, industrial (water use)
de – see prefixes and suffixes
decimal degrees (DD) – use a degree mark after the last number in each measurement, with no space, but do include a space between the degree mark and cardinal direction (for example, 34.068377° N, 106.904071° W NAD83); see degree mark
degree – see academic degrees and degree mark
degrees – for temperatures and latitude/longitude, use the degree mark; don’t spell out the word degrees; no space between the numeral and degree mark (for example, 20°C, 34.758333° N, 34°45′30″ N NAD83); see degree mark
degrees minutes seconds (DMS)
Use a degree mark after the first number in each measurement, a prime symbol (′) after the second number (minutes), and a double prime (″) after the third number (seconds), with no spaces; include the cardinal direction (for example, 34°4′6.16″ N, 106°54′14.66″ W NAD83). May also be written with negative values for western longitudes and southern latitudes if required (for example, 34°, -106°); see degree mark and prime symbol.
depression – lowercase as a landform or economic term; capitalize in the Great Depression
description of map units
Geologic maps typically require a stratigraphically ordered list of descriptions of bedrock units and unconsolidated deposits; geologic reports may include similar information in an appendix. A few general guidelines and examples are given below to help format these descriptions uniformly. Note that this discussion applies to geologic quadrangle maps and similar maps where the geologic mapping itself is the focus of the document, as opposed to geologic maps used as figures in a report.
Every unit shown on a geologic map and cross section must include a written description. The description should include sufficient information on the essential attributes of the unit to allow recognition in the field. The essential attributes may vary depending on the nature of the unit and the quality and accessibility of exposures. Generally, they will include age, lithologic characteristics, mineral content, color, texture, cementation, bedding and outcrop characteristics, fossil content, thickness, and relationships to other units. Since internal consistency is important, and providing clear descriptions aids readers’ comprehension, unit-description attributes should be described in approximately the same order for each unit.
If the unit description includes comments on the geologic history of the unit, or if it consists of two or more subunits described separately, write it as a complete sentence.
Even if the description consists of incomplete phrases, separating phrases that differ significantly in content with periods is preferred:
Conversely, don’t use less emphatic punctuation marks, such as commas and semicolons, to separate complete sentences:
If a member has been formally named, capitalize the word “member” (for example, the Tshirege Member of the Bandelier Tuff). Use lowercase “member” for informal units. See capitalization.
Compound modifiers (adjectives) consist of two or more words or numbers that combine to describe a noun. The words forming the compound modifier are usually, but not always, connected by hyphens. General guidelines for hyphen use are given in the punctuation/hyphen section. Descriptions of map units, however, are often full of compound modifiers, and hyphenation rules can be a source of confusion and frustration for writers and editors. Generally, a hyphen is used to connect compound modifiers that come before the word being modified, and a hyphen is not used for compound modifiers that come after the word being modified. Consult the Glossary of Geology for examples of compound modifiers that are always hyphenated.
Exceptions: No hyphen if the first word in the compound modifier is very or an adverb ending in “ly.” Don’t use a hyphen if the first word in a three-word unit modifier is an adverb that describes the second word.
dieback
die-off
different from – not different to or different than
dimension – abbreviate as 1D, 2D, and 3D
dip – when reporting the inclination of a plane, include the angle and direction (for example, 33N); dip measurements are normally paired with strike or dip direction (for example, N66E, 66SE)
dip direction – direction of the angle of dip, measured 90° clockwise from strike when following the right-hand rule; symbology in GIS follows this convention, and all measurements for the azimuth field in a Bureau of Geology geodatabase should be given as dip direction for planar features or trend for linear features
dip slip (n), dip-slip (adj) – for example, dip separation, strike slip, a dip-slip fault
dip slope
directionals – words indicating direction are lowercase when written out (for example, north, south, northwest, north-northeast) and capitalized when abbreviated (for example, N, S, NW, NNE); recognized regions of the United States are capitalized (for example, Midwest, Northeast, Northwest, South, Southwest)
disclaimers
Use where needed in Bureau of Geology publications:
The data, views, and conclusions included in this report are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as necessarily representing the official policies, either expressed or implied, of the New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources or the State of New Mexico. All data are for informational purposes only, and the user bears all responsibility in determining whether these data are fit for the intended use.
For maps:
Any use of this geologic map, directly or indirectly, to generate derivative products must include a citation to the authors, the publisher (The New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources), the published year, the map series and number, and any contributing agencies providing funding to complete this publication.
doctorate, doctoral – see academic degrees
Douglas-fir
downcutting
downdip
downfaulted
downgradient
downhole
downriver
downsection
downslope
downward – not downwards
downwind
drier
drill hole
drill-stem test
drylands
dumbbell
dune field
Earth – capitalize only when used without an article and in reference to a body in the solar system (for example, we spotted Earth from the surface of the moon); use lowercase when talking about the ground (for example, the earth beneath our feet)
Earth’s orbit
earth science(s), earth scientist(s) – lowercase only
effect/affect – effect as a verb means to cause (for example, to effect change) and as a noun means a result (for example, the effect was quite positive); affect as a verb means to influence (for example, may affect flow patterns)
e.g. – abbreviation for exempli gratia, Latin for “for example”; always followed by a comma
electrical power generation – not electric power generation
ellipsis – see punctuation
email – not e-mail
end member
eolian – not aeolian
eon – the largest division of geologic time; capitalize only if a proper name (for example, the Proterozoic Eon)
ephemeral stream – streams that only flow after a precipitation event
epoch – the division of geologic time between a period and an age; capitalize only if a proper name (for example, the Oligocene Epoch)
era – the second-largest division of geologic time, shorter than an eon; capitalize only if a proper name (for example, the Mesozoic Era)
Española Basin – see capitalization/geography
Esri – ESRI (now deprecated) was formally an acronym for Environmental Systems Research Institute, Esri is an American GIS software company
Estancia Basin – see capitalization/geography
et al. – abbreviation for et alia, Latin for “and others”; used for in-text citations with more than two authors and in reference entries with more than 10 authors (see citations and references)
etc. – abbreviation for et cetera, Latin for “and so forth” or “and the rest”; avoid using etc. in technical publications
Exit 235 – capitalize in reference to a specific exit on an interstate or highway
expansion-contraction
Fahrenheit – see units of measurement and temperature
farther/further – farther refers to spatial, temporal, or metaphorical distance (for example, the outcrop is 5 km farther than the mine, the Permian is farther back in time than the Holocene, nothing could be farther from the truth); further indicates an addition and is used when there is no notion of distance (for example, she contacted me with further information)
fault – capitalize only as part of an official name (for example, San Andreas Fault)
fault-propagation fold
fault system – an array of interconnected and kinematically related faults, or two or more geometrically related fault sets (for example, a conjugate fault system)
fault zone – lowercase (for example, Cascadia fault zone); a fault that is expressed as a zone of numerous small fractures, breccia, and/or fault gouge; a fault zone may be as wide as hundreds of meters
federal – lowercase unless part of a proper name (for example, the U.S. Federal Reserve)
feet – see units of measurement
fewer/less – use fewer for individual countable items (for example, fewer dollars, fewer outcrops); use less for uncountable singular mass nouns (for example, less money, less education)
field work
figure callouts
Use Figure when the callout is in a line of text and Fig. when it’s inside parentheses:
When calling out multiple figures:
fire – don’t capitalize fire after a proper name (for example, Whitewater-Baldy fire)
firsthand
fiscal year, FY – for example, FY2023
floodplain
floodwater
flotation
flow path
flow rate
flow top
fold – not hyphenated with a number (for example, twofold, tenfold)
foot slope
Fort Sumner Dam
fresh water (n), freshwater (adj) – for example, the spring is a source of fresh water, a freshwater spring
front end (n), front-end (adj) – for example, the application’s front end, a front-end developer
Ga – giga-annum, or billions of years ago; the scientific notation for geologic time; use with geochronologic dates; don’t use interchangeably with Gyr
gage/gauge – gage is used for “stream gage,” while gauge is used for other measuring devices (for example, pressure gauge), wire thickness (for example, 12-gauge electrical wire), and estimating or determining (for example, gauge the severity)
gamma ray
gamma-ray log
gases – not gasses
genus/species
Genus names are capitalized, species names are lowercase, and both are italicized (for example, Homo sapiens, Canis lupus, Tyrannosaurus rex). In subsequent mentions, the genus may be abbreviated (for example, E. woodii, E. coli). When listing the common and scientific names, the common name comes first, followed by the scientific name in parentheses (for example, broom snakeweed (Gutierrezia sarothrae))
geographic names – currently accepted formal geographic names are listed in the USGS Geographic Names Information System (GNIS) database; authors should clearly identify all informal geographic names used in Bureau of Geology reports
geologic – used to refer to rock or Earth features (for example, geologic sample, geologic time scale)
geologic names
Geologic names are assigned to formal and informal geologic units and structural features. Rules applying to the use of geologic names are summarized below. The North American Stratigraphic Code gives detailed discussions of the issues associated with the use of geologic names. Authors should consult the USGS National Geologic Map Database (aka Geolex) to determine if a unit is formally recognized.
Formal geologic units are defined in accordance with the current or previously accepted versions of the North American Stratigraphic Code. Informal geologic units are sometimes useful locally, but, for whatever reasons, they don’t comply with the requirements of the current stratigraphic code. Use informal geologic units in Bureau of Geology reports with care, and in all cases, clearly identify them as informal units using lowercase words (for example, member, unit, sandstone).
Formal geologic unit names should always be written out to avoid confusion (for example, Chinle Formation versus Chinle, Arizona). Abbreviations may be used in figures and tables to save space.
Term/Lithology | Abbreviation | System/Period,Era/Erathem | Abbreviation | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Formal | Informal | |||
Group | Gp. | gp. | Quaternary | Q |
Formation | Fm. | fm. | Neogene | N |
Member | Mbr. | mbr. | Paleogene | : |
Claystone | Clst. | clst. | Cretaceous | K |
Conglomerate | Cgl. | cgl. | Jurassic | J |
Dolomite | Dol. | dol. | Triassic | ^ |
Gneiss | Gn. | gn. | Permian | P |
Granite | Gr. | gr. | Pennsylvanian | * |
Limestone | Ls. | ls. | Mississippian | M |
Mudstone | Mdst. | mdst. | Devonian | D |
Quartzite | Qtzt. | qtzt. | Silurian | S |
Rhyolite | Rhy. | rhy. | Ordovician | O |
Sandstone | Ss. | ss. | Cambrian | _ |
Shale | Sh. | sh. | Precambrian | = |
Siltstone | Sltst | sltst. | Cenozoic | { |
Volcanics | .Volc. | volc. | Mesozoic | } |
Paleozoic | | | |||
Proterozoic | < | |||
Neoproterozoic | Z | |||
Mesoproterozoic | Y | |||
Paleoproterozoic | X | |||
Neoarchean | W | |||
Mesoarchean | V | |||
Paleoarchean | U |
There are no rules equivalent to the North American Stratigraphic Codefor naming structural geologic features. Authors may choose names as they see fit, provided the feature has not been previously named in the literature. Common sense, good taste, and close adherence to the rule of precedence should guide authors who propose to name structural features in Bureau of Geology publications.
geological – used to refer to things related to the study of geology (for example, geological survey, geological society)
GIS – geographic information system
glacial-interglacial
Goodnight-Loving Trail
gorge – lowercase unless in a proper name (for example, Rio Grande Gorge)
GPS – Global Positioning System, the global navigation satellite system (GNSS) owned by the U.S. government
gray – not grey
gray water
Great Plains
grid cell – for example, 1/24-degree grid cell
ground cover
groundmass
groundwater
GSA – Geological Society of America
guidebook – lowercase unless in a proper name (for example, Geologic Guidebooks of North America)
Gyr – a billion years; use for durations and intervals of time (for example, for geologic processes); don’t use interchangeably with Ga
Hadley cell, Hadley circulation
half century, half cycle – no hyphen
half-life
hard rock
HAWQS – Hydrologic and Water Quality System (web-based modeling)
headwaters
hillslope
historic/historical – historic is something with significant and lasting importance (for example, a historic flood); historical is anything relating to history (for example, historical data, historical records); use a rather than an with both
HPLC – high-performance liquid chromatograph or high-performance liquid chromatography
hydrologic – not hydrological
hydromagmatic
hydrometeorological report – abbreviated HMR
hyphen – see punctuation
IC – ion chromatography
ice age (n), ice-age (adj) – not capitalized (for example, the last ice age, ice-age glacial erratics)
ICP-MS – inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
ICP-OES – inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry
IDF – intensity, duration, frequency (of precipitation events)
i.e. – abbreviation for id est, Latin for “that is”; aways followed by a comma
indigenous – lowercase when not used as a proper noun (for example, the species is indigenous to the island); uppercase when used in Indigenous American; when referring to a specific tribe, nation, or pueblo, use that group’s preferred name (for example, Jicarilla Apache Nation, Pueblo of Acoma); if possible, verify the usage with the tribe, nation, or pueblo
INFIL model – USGS groundwater software, also INFIL3.0
in situ – not italicized, no hyphen (for example, in situ leaching)
inter – see prefixes and suffixes
intermittent stream – a stream that flows regularly or predictably, but not year-round
internet – lowercase
Interstate 25, I-25 – on first mention, spell out Interstate; may be abbreviated on subsequent mention; see abbreviations/acronyms
IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
isotopes – in isotope abbreviations, the mass number is shown as a superscript and precedes the element with no space between (for example, 14C); can also be written as carbon-14
italics
Italics are not used in Bureau of Geology publications for emphasis or for words from other languages (for example, versus and acequia are both not italicized). Italics are used for the following.
Note that these conventions apply to text, not reference list entries. For reference list formatting, see references. For more on quotation marks, see quotation marks.
Jemez lineament – see capitalization/geography
Jemez Mountains volcanic field – see capitalization/geography
ka – (both letters lowercase) kilo-annum, or thousands of years ago; the scientific notation for geologic time; use with geochronologic dates; don’t use interchangeably with kyr
K/Ar – potassium-argon dating, a method of radiometric dating
Kelvin – see units of measurement and temperature
kW – see units of measurement
kWh – see units of measurement
kyr – (all letters lowercase) a thousand years; use for durations and intervals of time (for example, for geologic processes); don’t use interchangeably with ka
landform
Landsat
land-surface water budget
LANL – Los Alamos National Laboratory (not Laboratories)
less/fewer – use less for uncountable singular mass nouns (for example, less money, less education); use fewer for individual countable items (for example, fewer dollars, fewer outcrops)
lidar – light detection and ranging or laser imaging, detection, and ranging; not LIDAR, LiDAR, or Lidar
like – see prefixes and suffixes
lists
It’s often necessary to display or organize a group of related items in a publication. For large volumes of related material or data, use a graph or table when possible. For smaller volumes, incorporate a list within a sentence or display it vertically.
A list that is long, contains complete sentences, or merits special emphasis should be indented and displayed vertically.
Numbers, letters, bullets, or dashes may be used to delineate list items. Numbers and letters may or may not imply an order or hierarchy among the items and are useful if items are referred to in the text. Bullets and dashes imply no particular order or hierarchy among items.
If the items in a vertical list complete their introductory sentence, a colon is used, the items are not capitalized, each item is followed by a comma (or semicolon when appropriate), and the last item in the list ends with a period:
If a vertical list consists of a series of complete sentences, capitalize the first letter of each item and end each item with a period:
Introductory sentences should end with a period only if the sentence is long and the anticipatory word or phrase occurs early in the sentence, or if another sentence comes between the introductory sentence and the list.
All lists must maintain parallel structure by beginning each item with the same part of speech (usually a noun, verb, or adjective).
lithodemic – refers to units that are predominantly intrusive, highly metamorphosed, and/or intensely deformed rock and to which the Law of Superposition generally does not apply
lithostratigraphic units – refers to layered units that conform to the Law of Superposition; see geologic units
LL or L – single L is preferred in American English (for example, canceled, not cancelled; modeled, not modelled)
Llano de Albuquerque – see capitalization/geography
longshore bars
longwall mining
Los Alamos National Laboratory – not Laboratories; abbreviated LANL
Ma – mega-annum, or millions of years ago; the scientific notation for geologic time; use with geochronologic dates; don’t use interchangeably with Myr
MA – see academic degrees
main stem (n), main-stem (adj) – not mainstem (for example, the main stem of the Rio Grande, a main-stem river)
master’s degree, master of science – see academic degrees
megadrought – see prefixes and suffixes
Mesilla Basin – see capitalization/geography
metamorphism – can use in relation to rocks
metamorphosis – not the same as metamorphism; use in relation to insects, not rocks
metaquartzite – see prefixes and suffixes
mg/kg – see units of measurement
μg/kg – see units of measurement
mg/L – see units of measurement
μg/L – see units of measurement
mid – see prefixes and suffixes
Middle Rio Grande – capitalize Middle in relation to the district or the conservancy; use lowercase middle in relation to an indefinite stretch of the river (for example, middle Rio Grande)
Middle Rio Grande Basin – see capitalization/geography
Midwest – capitalize only as a proper name for a region (for example, the American Midwest); see directionals
minable – try to avoid; use economic instead if possible
minerals
Mineral names are governed by the International Mineralogical Association (IMA) Commission on New Minerals, Nomenclature and Classification (CNMNC; http://cnmnc.units.it/). An up-to-date list of all IMA-approved mineral names can be found at https://rruff.info/ima/, and IMA-approved symbols or abbreviations for minerals can be found in https://doi.org/10.1180/mgm.2021.43. Mineral names are not capitalized unless they are at the beginning of a sentence.
mine-water recovery
mini – see prefixes and suffixes
modeling – see LL or L
Mogollon-Datil volcanic field – not Datil-Mogollon; see capitalization/geography
molecules – see abbreviations and acronyms and capitalization
mountain/mountains – capitalize only if part of a proper name (for example, Franks Mountain, Sandia Mountains); in text, don’t abbreviate in proper names (for example, Sandia Mountains, not Sandia Mtns.); may be abbreviated to Mtn. or Mtns. in figures and maps
MS – see academic degrees
m/s – see units of measurement
mud cracks
mudflow
mud log
mudstone
multi – see prefixes and suffixes
MW – see units of measurement
MWh– see units of measurement
Myr – a million years; use for durations and intervals of time (for example, for geologic processes); don’t use interchangeably with Ma
ñ – the eñe (an n with a tilde) is used in many Spanish words and should be preserved when possible in Bureau of Geology publications (for example, piñon, Española)
names
For mastheads and title pages, be consistent; for authors, always use the exact same name for publications (for example, don’t use nicknames; if you use a middle initial for one publication, use it for all; if you have a junior/senior, use it). Academic titles are not listed in author bylines. Phil Miller is attempting to maintain a database of official author names for Bureau publications, so please inform him of your and your co-authors’ preferred author listing.
NASA – National Aeronautics and Space Administration
National Academy/Academies – check whether singular or plural (for example, National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, but National Academy of Sciences)
national laboratories – the 17 national labs of the U.S. Department of Energy; use plural for the collective (for example, the nation’s national laboratories); use singular for a specific lab (for example, Los Alamos National Laboratory); the exception is Sandia National Laboratories
Native American – acceptable for general use (for example, Native American cultures); when referring to a specific tribe, nation, or pueblo, use that group’s preferred name (for example, Jicarilla Apache Nation, Pueblo of Acoma); if possible, verify the usage with the tribe, nation, or pueblo
natural gas
natural gas production – no hyphen
Navajo Nation Environmental Protection Agency – abbreviated NNEPA, not Navajo EPA
nearshore
New Mexico – don’t abbreviate as NM except in an address (for example, Socorro, NM 87801) or in figures and maps
New Mexico Administrative Code – abbreviated NMAC (for example, NMAC 19.25.12)
New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, NMBGMR
For technical publications, use the full name with the acronym in parentheses at the first mention, then the acronym only for subsequent mentions. For general audiences, it’s acceptable to use New Mexico Bureau of Geology. Don’t use an ampersand (&) in the full name or acronym. Don’t abbreviate as NMBG.
The New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources is the New Mexico state geological survey (not New Mexico State Geologic Survey).
New Mexico Energy, Minerals and Natural Resources Department – abbreviated EMNRD
New Mexico Environment Department – abbreviated NMED
New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, New Mexico Tech, NMT
For technical publications, use the full name with the acronym in parentheses at the first mention, then the acronym only for subsequent mentions. Use New Mexico Tech only for general audiences.
New Mexico Office of the State Engineer – abbreviated OSE
non – see prefixes and suffixes
Northeast – capitalize only as a proper name for a region (for example, the Northeast comprises nine states); see directionals
North Valley – of Albuquerque; see capitalization/geography
Northwest – capitalize only as a proper name for a region (for example, the Pacific Northwest); see directionals
noun – a word that identifies a specific object or set of objects, such as a person, place, thing, action, or idea (for example, canyon, layer, doctor)
number
The abbreviations no., No., and # lead to confusion, so use them sparingly. Lowercase no. refers to serial numbers (for example, no. 14558-789-D) as well as issue numbers in a reference entry (for example, v. 6, no. 12). Uppercase No. identifies individual data points in a series or collection (for example, specimen No. 567). The # symbol has historically been used for a wide range of purposes, from a shorthand for “number” (for example, #2 pencil), a shorthand for “pound” (for example, 5# sack of flour), or as a hashtag (for example, #winning).
numerals
An en dash may be used with ranges of numbers (for example, 24–14 Ma). However, don’t use an en dash to substitute for the words to, through, or until if the word from precedes the phrase (for example, from 10 to 15 m thick), or to substitute for the word and if the word between precedes the phrase (for example, between 24 and 14 Ma). With ranges of numbers, use only one unit symbol at the end. See dash.
Sometimes established convention makes using fractions preferable to decimals. Rules for using fractions include the following.
Use numerals with inches, feet, yards, etc., to indicate depth, height, length, width, and mass:
Use common abbreviations for units in publications aimed at a scientific audience; spell out units for a general audience. Don’t use periods after ft, yd, m, etc. Exception: Use a period after in. to distinguish it from the preposition. See units of measurement.
Use a minus sign (Unicode 2212, Alt + 8722), not a hyphen:
NVTD – net vertical tectonic displacement
off site (adv), off-site (adj) – for example, the seminar will be held off site, at an off-site location
oil-bearing shale
oil field
oneseed juniper
ongoing
online
on site (adv), on-site (adj) – for example, the seminar will be held on site, at an on-site location
Open-File Geologic Map – abbreviated OF-GM
open pit (n), openpit (adj) – for example, an open pit, open pit mining
optical cathodoluminescence – abbreviated OP-CL
orebody, orebodies
over – see prefixes and suffixes
paleo – no hyphen when used as a prefix (for example, paleovalley, paleocanyon, etc.); the exception is Paleo-Indian
Paleo-Indian
Pangea
parentheses – see punctuation
pay-off (n), pay off (v) – for example, a big lottery pay-off, pay off a debt
PDF – Portable Document Format, a file format created by Adobe
peak flow (n), peak-flow (adj) – for example, the river is at peak flow, a peak-flow meter
Pecos Valley Artesian Conservancy District – abbreviated PVACD
percent – use the percent symbol (%) with numerals (for example, 95%); for other uses, write out percent or percentage (for example, the percent of customers lacking water, a large percentage)
perennial stream – a stream that has flowing water year-round
period – the division of geologic time between an era and an epoch; capitalize only if a proper name (for example, the Jurassic Period)
Permian Basin – see capitalization/geography
PhD – see academic degrees
piezometer
pinch out
piñon-juniper
plane table
planform
point-source (adj), non-point-source (adj) – for example, point-source and non-point-source pollution
ponderosa pine – not Ponderosa pine
postfire (adj), post-wildfire (adj) – for example, postfire recovery, post-wildfire reforestation
post-mine land use
potential evapotranspiration – abbreviated PET
powerline
ppb – see units of measurement
ppm – see units of measurement
pre – see prefixes and suffixes
prefixes and suffixes
The trend in modern writing is away from using hyphens with prefixes and suffixes. Consult the Glossary of Geology and Merriam-Webster Dictionary for specific examples. Otherwise, follow the guidance below. Hyphens should always be used if the word following a prefix is capitalized or a number (for example, pro-Belgian, pre-1950).
anti- no hyphen unless there’s a double i (anti-immigration)
bi-/bio- no hyphen
co- use a hyphen for words that indicate occupation or status (for example, co-host, co-worker); otherwise, no hyphen unless there’s a double o (for example, coexist, coed, co-occur)
de- don’t use a hyphen unless there’s a double e (for example, deregulate, de-emphasize)
down- no hyphen (for example, downwind, downslope)
-elect always use a hyphen (for example, President-elect Pat Jones)
inter- no hyphen (for example, interglacial, interbasin)
-like no hyphen unless the letter L would be tripled or the first word is a proper noun (for example, businesslike, rocklike, bell-like, Albuquerque-like)
mid- no hyphen unless followed by a capitalized word or a numeral (for example, midterm, midcontinent, mid-American, mid-1990s)
mini- no hyphen unless there’s a double i (for example, minivan, mini-intrusion)
-most no hyphen (for example, lowermost, uppermost)
multi- no hyphen unless there’s a double i (for example, multinational, multi-instrumental)
non- no hyphen unless followed by a proper noun or if the combination is awkward (for example, nonhazardous, nonprofit, non-nuclear, non-British)
over- no hyphen (for example, overextend, overbank, overlie)
post- no hyphen unless there’s a double t (for example, postdate, post-traumatic)
pre- no hyphen, even with a double e (for example, preread, preenrollment, preeminent)
pro- use a hyphen when indicating support for something (for example, pro-union, pro-chocolate); otherwise, no hyphen (for example, pronoun, prorate)
re- no hyphen, even with a double e (for example, reinject, reevaluate).
semi- no hyphen unless there’s a double i (for example, semiarid, semi-intermittent)
sub- no hyphen, even with a double b, unless the second word is capitalized (for example, subregion, subreach, subbasin, sub-Saharan)
super- no hyphen unless the second word is capitalized (for example, supervolcano, super-Democrat)
ultra- no hyphen (for example, ultramafic, ultraviolet)
un- no hyphen, even with a double n (for example, undammed, unnamed)
under- no hyphen, even with a double r (for example, underground, underregulated); an exception is under-delivery
up- no hyphen unless there’s a double p (for example, upgradient, upriver, up-passage)
vice write as two words with no hyphen (for example, vice president, vice chair)
-ward no hyphen (for example, eastward, basinward)
-wide no hyphen if the word is listed in Merriam-Webster (for example, statewide); if it is not listed, hyphenate it (for example, basin-wide)
principal/principle – principal means first in rank, authority, or importance (for example, principal investigator, principal of the school, principal cause); principle means a fundamental law, doctrine, assumption, or personal conviction (for example, the geologic principle of uniformitarianism, a principle of equity)
probable maximum precipitation – abbreviated PMP
proforeland basin
Public Land Survey System – abbreviated PLSS; also known as township and range; format as:
pullout (n), pull out (v) – for example, we parked at the pullout, the army will pull out of the region
pumpjack
punctuation
Apostrophes have two primary uses: to indicate possession and to make contractions.
To indicate possession:
To make contractions:
Brackets serve the same function as parentheses—to enclose incidental information or explanatory material—but they’re restricted to situations where it’s necessary to enclose information within an existing set of parentheses:
Brackets are also used in equations and formulas, and to insert brief editorial comments or corrections into quoted material (see quotations).
Use a colon (not a semicolon) to introduce lists, long quotations, and for emphasis:
Don’t capitalize the first word after a colon unless it’s a proper noun or the beginning of a complete sentence:
Colons are also used after salutations in a formal letter (for example, Dear Dr. Jones:), to separate hours from minutes (for example, 3:45 p.m.), to separate the two halves of a ratio (for example, 4:1), and in reference entries to separate the title of a source from its publisher (see references).
For help with structuring lists with colons, see lists.
Commas have many uses.
To delineate items in a series:
Before and after a state name when a city is given:
To separate adjectives that are equal in rank (adjectives that can switch locations in the sentence with one another such that the sentence will still make sense):
No comma is needed before the last adjective if it’s critical to the meaning:
To set off introductory phrases:
To set off two phrases joined by a conjunction when each phrase could stand alone as a sentence:
To introduce short quotations:
In numbers greater than three digits (but not after a decimal):
To identify month, date, and year:
Don’t use a comma to separate months and years:
Don’t use a comma with Inc.:
Don’t use a comma with Jr. and Sr.:
There are two types of dashes: en dashes (–) and em dashes (—).
An en dash (so called because it’s the width of the letter n) is used to connect inclusive words and numbers such as dates, page ranges, and ranges of values when given as equivalent units of measure in parentheses:
As a test for when an en dash is appropriate over a hyphen, substitute the words to, through, or up to and including between the items.
An em dash (so called because it’s the width of the letter m) is used to set off extra information, such as examples, explanatory or descriptive phrases, or supplemental facts:
Don’t put spaces before or after either dash.
Don’t use a hyphen where a dash would be the correct choice and vice versa.
In reference list entries, use an em dash to replace a colon that appears within the document title to avoid possible confusion with the colon that is used to mark the end of the document title (see references):
Don’t use en dashes to substitute for the words to or and when used with from or between, respectively, to indicate a range of values. Don’t use an en dash when the two items in the range are hyphenated.
PC/Mac controls for en dash:
PC/Mac controls for em dash:
An ellipsis indicates that one or more words have been omitted from quoted material:
Ellipses are formed by typing three periods in a row. Include a space before the first period and after the last period.
Ellipses are not used before the first word of a quotation, even if the beginning of the original sentence is omitted, or after the last word of a quotation, even if the end of the original sentence is omitted.
Ellipses are not meant to indicate a break in thought; don’t use them instead of an em dash.
A hyphen joins two or more words that work together to modify a subsequent noun:
Don’t use a hyphen when the noun comes first:
Don’t use a hyphen with very or adverbs ending in ly:
Don’t use a hyphen when the modifying words do not function as one unit and could be separated by a comma:
Use a hyphen to prevent doubled vowels and tripled consonants:
When describing rock units in stratigraphic sections, well logs, and other lists, compound modifiers following a rock name are traditionally hyphenated in the geologic literature:
A number of compound nouns exist in geological vocabulary. Some are hyphenated (acre-foot, cross-bed, cross-stratification, meta-arkose), and others are not (cross section, dip angle, dike swarm, solution banding). Consult the Glossary of Geology for the proper forms of compound nouns.
Compound numbers between twenty-one and ninety-nine and fractions are hyphenated when written out:
Use a hyphen to separate noninclusive numbers, such as telephone numbers and serial numbers:
Use a hyphen where numbers and units of measure form a compound modifier:
See prefixes and suffixes for more on the use of hyphens.
Parentheses enclose incidental information or explanatory material and are the most common type of punctuation found in scientific reports after commas and periods. Parentheses are used in the following ways.
To enclose abbreviations the first time they appear:
For in-text citations (see brackets):
To provide alternative units of measurement:
To call out figures, tables, chapters, and appendices:
To provide additional information:
To enumerate points in a list:
Don’t use back-to-back parentheses; use a semicolon to separate items, for example, (Fig. 2; Hook, 1983), or rewrite to avoid back-to-back parentheses or ambiguity.
Quotation marks set off direct speech and material quoted verbatim from other sources (see quotations):
In text (but not reference entries), quotation marks enclose the titles of journal articles, book chapters, and newspaper articles and editorials. Italics are used for the names of the larger works these items are published in (see italics):
Quotation marks also enclose words used in a special way:
Commas and periods are always placed inside closing quotation marks; colons and semicolons are always placed outside closing quotation marks. All other punctuation marks are placed inside quotation marks only if they are part of the quoted material.
Don’t use a quotation mark as a substitute for the double-prime symbol (″) (i.e., seconds of angle; see prime symbol).
Don’t use a quotation mark as an abbreviation for inches (for example, 6 in., not 6”).
A semicolon indicates a pronounced separation between grammatical units. It’s stronger than a comma and almost as full as a period, but it implies a closer relationship between the thoughts than a period would. A semicolon separates two or more complete thoughts (independent clauses) within a single sentence:
When a semicolon is used to link complete thoughts, it doesn’t require a conjunction (and, but, or, if, so, etc.); however, a semicolon is necessary when an adverbial conjunction (accordingly, besides, consequently, furthermore, hence, however, instead, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, still, therefore, thus) connects the thoughts:
Don’t use a semicolon with the simple coordinating conjunctions and, or, for, nor, yet, so, and but. Instead use a comma.
Semicolons are also used to separate items in a series when one or more of the items requires a comma (see lists).
Slashes are used to signify alternatives (for example, and/or, his/hers), in abbreviations (for example, m/s, acre-ft/yr), or in fractions (for example, 1/3, 1/4).
quadrangle – not capitalized in general area description (for example, the Park City East quadrangle); capitalized when citing a USGS geologic quadrangle map (for example, USGS Quadrangle Map GQ-126)
quadrant bearing – use a degree mark for the angle portion of the measurement, with spaces between each element of the measurement (for example, N 66° E; see degree mark); note that azimuth measurements are preferred for reporting strike in reports, and dip direction is required in GIS
quotation marks – see punctuation and quotations
quotations
Direct quotations contain the original words of a speaker or written material taken verbatim from another document. When quoting directly, especially from copyrighted material, clearly identify the quoted material by enclosing it in quotation marks, and give full credit (including page number for quoted text) to the speaker or author with a citation.
Indicate omissions in quoted matter with an ellipsis.
Short quotations are incorporated directly into the text (for example, Dr. Jones stated, “When fully grown, Tyrannosaurus rex stood more than 20 feet tall.”).
If there is quoted material within the material you are quoting, use single quote marks to denote such material.
Block quotations: Indent and use single space for long quotations (usually more than one sentence), but don’t enclose them with quotation marks; add the citation at the end:
It is useless to ask when this disaster [an earthquake] will occur. Our occupation of the country has been too brief to learn how fast the Wasatch grows; indeed, it is only by such disasters that we can learn. By the time experience has taught us this, Salt Lake City will have been shaken down.
G.K. Gilbert, Salt Lake Tribune, 1883 (Gilbert, 1884)
Reproduce titles and references exactly as written in the original except for obvious typographical errors. Reproduce other words in error exactly and then follow them by [sic] to indicate that the erroneous word or passage is exactly reproduced.
If necessary, use brackets to insert other comments or corrections into quoted material (for example, [an earthquake] in the block quote above).
Rail Runner – New Mexico train with service between Belen and Santa Fe
rain-fed
rare earth elements – no hyphen
Raton Basin – see capitalization/geography
Rb-Sr – rubidium-strontium dating, a method of radiometric dating
re – see prefixes and suffixes
red beds – not redbeds
references
References are the complete list of sources used in a publication. The guidelines here are largely based on the GSA reference style guide (https://rock.geosociety.org/net/documents/gsa/pubs/GSA_RefGuide_Examples.pdf).
Examples
Examples
Examples
Examples
Examples
Additional examples can be found at https://rock.geosociety.org/net/documents/gsa/pubs/GSA_RefGuide_Examples.pdf
revegetation
ridgeline
rimrock
Rio Grande – not Rio Grande River
Rio Grande rift – see capitalization/geography
riverbanks
riverbed
road beds
roadcut
road log
roadside
rockcut
rock shelter
rockslide
runoff (n), run off (v) – for example, the runoff reached the stream, the water will run off the roof
salt cedar – not saltcedar
saltwater
Sandia National Laboratories – not Laboratory
San Juan-Chama Project
San Juan Generating Station
Santa Fe Railroad – not Santa Fe Railway
seafloor
seafloor spreading
sea-level rise
sea-surface temperature
seawater
sedimentary-copper deposits
SEM – scanning electron microscopy
SEM-CL – scanning electron microscopy cathodoluminescence
semi – see prefixes and suffixes
semicolon – see punctuation
sentence case – a capitalization style in which only the first word of a sentence and proper nouns are capitalized
sequence stratigraphy, sequence-stratigraphic analysis
shaly
Ship Rock – the geologic and geographic feature; Shiprock – the community nearby
shoreface
shoreline
shotcrete
shutoff (n, adj), shut off (v) – for example, the power plant experienced a shutoff, a shutoff valve, we shut off the power
sideslope
SIMS – secondary ion mass spectroscopy
sinkhole
slash – see punctuation
slope former
snowmelt
snowpack
soil-moisture reservoir
soil stages – capitalize Stage I–VI for carbonate soil stages; use an en dash to indicate the range; if referring to Stage I+ do not use Stage I(+)
soil-water storage
Sonoran Desert – see capitalization/geography
South – capitalize only as a proper name for a region (for example, the American South); see directionals
South Valley – of Albuquerque; see capitalization/geography
Southern Rocky Mountains – the province; see capitalization/geography
Southwest – capitalize only as a proper name for a region (for example, the U.S. Southwest); see directionals
southwest/southwestern – for example, southwest winds, the southwestern United States; see directionals
stand-alone
standstill
state – don’t abbreviate state names (for example, Maine, not ME); capitalize state only when in a proper name (for example, State of New Mexico [meaning the state government], New Mexico State Office of the Bureau of Land Management, New Mexico is the fifth-largest state by area)
state engineer – capitalize only when part of a title (for example, State Engineer Mike Hamman, but the state engineer of New Mexico)
strandline
streambed
streamflow
strike – measured 90° counter-clockwise from the direction of dip when using the right-hand rule; can be reported in quadrant bearings (for example, strike N 66° E) or azimuth (for example, strike 66° E); strike in azimuth is preferred for reports, and dip direction is required for GIS
strip mine
sub – see prefixes and suffixes
Sumner Lake, Sumner Lake State Park
super – see prefixes and suffixes
supervolcano – one word, no hyphen
surface mining
surface water (n), surface-water (adj) – for example, surface water was plentiful, surface-water data
SWAT – Soil and Water Assessment Tool (public domain water modeling)
symbols
+, −, ÷, ×, and = Use a space before and after these arithmetic symbols.
<, >, ≤, and ≥ Use with numbers only, with no space between the symbol and number (for example, >5). When used with text, write out “greater than,” “less than,” etc.
± Use a space between number and symbol (for example, ± 14).
% Use with numbers only, with no space between number and symbol (for example, 98%).
~ For imprecise measurements, avoid using ~ in the text and instead use “approximately” or “about.” The ~ symbol may be used in figures and figure captions to save space. See approximately.
The degree mark (°) is used with numbers in statements of temperature, strike, dip, slope inclination, azimuth, latitude, and longitude. No space is used with the degree mark. Don’t use a degree mark when reporting Kelvin temperature. Don’t spell out “degree.”
PC/Mac controls for degree mark:
Don’t use an apostrophe (') or quotation mark (”) as a substitute for the prime (′) or double prime symbol (″), for example, latitude 38°12′30″ N (not 38°12'30” N).
Prime: PC: Alt + 8242, Mac: Option + 2032
Double prime: PC: Alt + 8243, Mac: Option + 2033
syn-rift
Temperature
Don’t spell out Fahrenheit or Celsius; abbreviate them (°F, °C). Kelvin can be spelled out or abbreviated (K).
Use a degree symbol instead of spelling out degrees for Fahrenheit or Celsius; Kelvin has no degree symbol. Use only Celsius or Kelvin for technical documents; use Fahrenheit for general publications.
tephra
Tertiary – this term is considered out of date and should be avoided; instead, be specific in naming periods or epochs of the Cenozoic era
that/which
Use that for phrases that are essential to the meaning of the sentence (for example, the six quadrangles that form the study area [the fact that the quadrangles form the study area identifies them and distinguishes them from other quadrangles]).
Use which for nonessential phrases that convey additional information (for example, the six quadrangles, which form the study area, contain great variation [the fact that the quadrangles form the study area is only an interesting aside]); which should be preceded by a comma.
time line – not timeline
TIMS – thermal ionization mass spectrometry
title case – a capitalization style in which all words are capitalized, except for minor words (articles [for example, a, an, the, etc.], prepositions [for example, on, for, after, etc.], and short conjunctions [for example, and, but, or, etc.]) that are not the first or last word of the title
TMDL – total maximum daily load
Toledo Caldera – see capitalization/geography
Topo to Raster tool (in ArcGIS) – not Topo To Raster, not Topo-to-Raster
toward – not towards
townsite
trackway
trail – capitalize only in proper names (for example, along the trail, Bright Angel Trail)
trailhead
Transcontinental Arch
transgressive-regressive cycles
traveled, traveling – see LL or L
tree-ring dating
tribe/tribal – capitalized when referencing a specific tribe or tribal governments and leaders (for example, Mescalero Apache Tribe, Tribal Chairman Pat Jones), lowercase when not referencing a specific tribe (for example, projects on tribal lands, the tribal perspective)
trip meter – not tripmeter
turnout (n), turn out (v) – for example, the event had good turnout, voters will turn out in droves
un – see prefixes and suffixes
unconformable – substantial break or gap in the geologic record where a rock unit is overlain by another that is not next in stratigraphic succession; also the structural relationship between strata that exhibit a break in deposition due to processes, such as erosion, that occurred before deposition of the younger beds; see conformable
under – see prefixes and suffixes
under-delivery (as in the Pecos River Compact)
underlie
unique – don’t include any modifiers (for example, don’t use very unique)
United States (n), U.S. (adj) – not US, no spaces (for example, we live in the United States, the U.S. government); an exception is when US appears in abbreviations (for example, USGS)
units of measurement
In general, use metric units in scientific or technical reports and imperial units in publications for a general audience. By convention, however, certain measurements are frequently reported in imperial units (for example, water levels and elevation).
Don’t convert numbers unless necessary. If necessary for a technical audience, use metric first, followed by imperial in parentheses. If necessary for a general audience, use imperial first and metric in parentheses. For added clarity, a conversion chart could be added to the front matter of a report.
Abbreviate units of measurement when used with a number. Don’t abbreviate if a unit falls in the middle of the sentence without a number (for example, In places, the zone of alteration is several meters thick).
Abbreviate units of measurement mostly without punctuation.
Abbreviation | Description |
---|---|
A | ampere |
acre-ft |
acre-feet |
acre-ft/yr |
acre-feet per year |
bbl |
barrel |
bbl/d |
barrels per day |
BTU |
British thermal unit |
°C |
degrees Celsius |
cd |
candela |
cfs |
cubic feet per second |
cm |
centimeter |
d |
day |
°F |
degrees Fahrenheit |
ft |
feet |
ft/yr |
feet per year |
g |
gram |
g/L |
grams per liter |
Ga |
giga-annum |
gal |
gallon |
gpm |
gallons per minute |
GW |
gigawatt |
GWh |
gigawatt-hour |
h |
hour |
ha |
hectare |
Hz |
hertz |
in. |
inch(es) |
in./yr |
inches per year |
J |
joule |
J/K |
joules per Kelvin |
J/kg-°C |
joules per kilogram per degree Celsius |
K |
Kelvin |
K |
hydraulic conductivity |
ka |
kilo-annum |
kaf |
thousands of acre-feet |
kg |
kilogram |
kg/m3 |
kilograms per cubic meter |
km |
kilometer |
kPa |
kilopascal |
kph |
kilometers per hour |
kW |
kilowatt |
kWh |
kilowatt-hour |
kyr | kiloyear |
L |
liter |
lb |
pound |
lbs |
pounds |
m |
meter |
m2 |
square meters |
Ma |
mega-annum |
meq/L |
milliequivalents per liter |
mg/kg |
milligrams per kilogram |
μg/kg |
micrograms per kilogram |
mg/L |
milligrams per liter |
μg/L |
micrograms per liter |
mi |
mile |
min |
minute |
mm/mo |
millimeters per month |
mol |
mole |
mph |
miles per hour |
m/s |
meters per second |
mS/cm |
millisiemens per centimeter |
μS/cm |
microsiemens per centimeter |
MW |
megawatt |
MWh |
megawatt-hour |
mW/m2 |
milliwatts per square meter |
m/yr |
meters per year |
μg |
microgram |
nm |
nanometers |
ohm-m |
ohm-meter |
ohm-m2/m |
ohm-meter squared per meter |
‰ |
per mill (per thousand) |
Pa |
pascal |
PMC |
percent modern carbon |
ppb |
parts per billion |
ppm |
parts per million |
ppt |
parts per thousand |
s |
second |
sq mi, mi2 |
square miles |
t |
metric ton |
TU |
tritium units |
VA |
vertical anisotropy |
wt% |
weight percent (for solutions) |
unpublished – spell out, don’t abbreviate; see citations
up – see prefixes and suffixes
Upper Colorado River – see capitalization/geography
Upper Colorado River basin – see capitalization/geography
uppercrust
U-Pb – uranium-lead dating, a method of radiometric dating
up to – avoid where possible; use as much as instead
upward – not upwards
U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs – abbreviated BIA
U.S. Bureau of Land Management – abbreviated BLM
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation – the preferred U.S. Department of the Interior style is to shorten to Reclamation after first mention; however, abbreviated as BOR is common usage
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency – abbreviated EPA
U.S. Forest Service – abbreviated USFS
U.S. Geological Survey – abbreviated USGS
U.S. National Park Service – abbreviated NPS; in later mentions, “park service” can be used (for example, the decision was made in conjunction with the park service)
UTM – Universal Transverse Mercator, a map projection system for assigning coordinates to locations on Earth’s surface
Valles Caldera – not Valles caldera; see capitalization/geography
Valles Caldera National Preserve
valley – lowercase unless part of a proper name (for example, the river valley, Mesilla Valley)
verb – a word used to describe an action (for example, read, learn), occurrence (for example, happen, become), or state of being (for example, be, exist)
versus – not italicized; don’t abbreviate unless in court case name (for example, Texas v. New Mexico)
VIC model – hydrologic model (by Liang et al., 1994, Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres, vol. 99, n. D7, p. 14415–14428)
visitor center, visitors’ center – not visitor’s center; check individual centers to confirm which punctuation is used; capitalize only if a proper name (for example, Carlsbad Caverns National Park Visitor Center, but “the family stopped at the visitor center”)
volcanic center
volcanic province
volcanoes
volcanology – not vulcanology
wastewater
water balance (n), water-balance (adj) – for example, a low water balance, a water-balance equation
water chemistry (n), water-chemistry (adj) – for example, we sampled the water chemistry, sampling produced water-chemistry data
water level (n), water-level (adj) – for example, a low water level, water-level data
waterlogged
water planning (n), water-planning (adj) – for example, the committee is engaged in water planning, they are water-planning specialists
water resources (n), water-resource (adj) – for example, our precious water resources, water-resource planning
watershed
water table (n), water-table (adj) – for example, the water table is low, water-table elevation
web – in relation to the internet, not Web
webpage
website
well-being
well-graded
well-rounded
well-sorted
wellbore
wellhead
well log (n), well-log (adj) – for example, we examined the well log, well-log data
West – capitalize only as a proper name for a region (for example, the American West); see directionals
whitewater
who/whom – who is a subject and performs the action of a verb (for example, the geologist who wrote the chapter); whom is an object and receives the action of a verb (for example, For whom was the plan designed? To whom did you send the samples?); whom comes after a preposition
wide – see prefixes and suffixes
wilderness – capitalize only in official designations (for example, in wilderness areas, Sabinoso Wilderness, Ignacio Chavez Wilderness Study Area)
wildlands
wildlife
windblown
woolly – as in “woolly mammoth” (not wooly)
workforce
workplace
X-ray – the X is always capitalized
X-ray computed tomography – abbreviated CT
XRD – X-ray diffraction
XRF – X-ray fluorescence
year-round – hyphenated
zip code – for all Socorro Bureau of Geology addresses, use 87801-4796